Human milk contains a diversity of Human Milk Oligosaccharides (HMO), with more than 200 HMOs identified and about 30 HMOs quantified.

The Feeding Infant and Toddlers Study (FITS) in US has shown that about half of US children between 4 and 6 months consume juice, much more than infants and toddlers in other countries.

A significant number of young children do not consume vegetables on a given day in Russia. For the ones that do eat vegetables, more than half comes from potatoes, according to Feeding Infant and Toddlers Study (FITS) performed in this country.

The Feeding Infant and Toddlers Study (FITS) in Mexico identified low consumption of iron-containing foods and high consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages.

In the China Feeding Infant and Toddlers Study (FITS), it was identified that few Chinese children consume sugar-sweetened beverages, but more than 60% of children under 2-years of age exceeded the upper intake level for sodium.

The FITS studies explore eating patterns, nutrient intakes and food sources of nutrients among infants and children in different countries around the world.

Carbohydrate metabolism is a fundamental biochemical process that ensures a constant supply of energy to living cells. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, which is the preferred fuel for the brain.

Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders (FGIDs) are common in infants and toddlers & young children and can have short and long-term impact on their quality of life.

The nutritional needs of toddlers differ from those of adults. Compared to adults, toddlers may need up to 7.5 times more vitamins and up to 4.5 times more minerals per kg body weight to support their rapid growth and development.

In this study, Goehring and colleagues investigated the effects of feeding infant formulas, supplemented with different types of oligosaccharides, including the HMO 2’FL, on the immune response of healthy infants

In this publication, Reverri and colleagues have reviewed the published evidence on clinical experiences of feeding formulae containing only the HMO, 2’FL, in healthy infants.

2’fucosyllactose (2’FL) when added to a partially hydrolysed whey protein infant formula, with Bifidobacterium animalis ssp lactis strain Bb12 (B. lactis) is well tolerated.

In this study, Puccio and colleagues evaluated the effects of infant formulae supplemented with 2 human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), namely 2′fucosyllactose (2′FL) and lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT), on infant growth and tolerance.

Nutrition during early years has a significant effect on the normal growth and development of the brain, and functioning of the immune system.

Toddlerhood represents striking changes in children’s growth and development. Between birth and age of 3, toddlers‘ body weight increases by 3- 4 times height almost doubles.

More than 1 in 10 of the world’s babies are born prematurely and the rates are increasing, both in developed and developing countries. Developmental immaturity in preterm infants impacts several organs and systems, which can lead to long-term consequences for health, growth and development. Preterm infants have distinct physiological characteristics compared to term infants, which result in high and unique nutritional needs. Adequate nutrition at this stage is crucial to meet the preterm infant needs for proper growth and development.

Protein play a crucial role in the growth and development of children. The size of protein influences on its allergic potential and digestibility. This presentation covers the characteristics of different protein hydrolysates, as well as the potential benefits of partial whey hydrolysates on risk reduction of allergic diseases and on the improvement of some functional gastrointestinal disorders

High protein intake in early stage of life is associated with accelerated weight gain during infancy and early childhood, which is a strong predictor of childhood and adult obesity. After birth, promotion of breastfeeding beyond 6 months is important to prevent excessive weight gain during infancy. This presentation focus on the impact of high protein intake in infancy on long term health.

Human Milk Oligosaccharides (HMOs) are the third most abundant component of human milk. Originally HMOs were discovered because of their prebiotic effect. Science evolved and currently it is already known that their effects go beyond the bifidogenic one, benefiting infants in many different ways. In this presentation you will find information about basic science and potential benefits of HMOs.

Some types of Human Milk Oligosaccharides (HMOs) are now commercially available and are being added to infant formula. This presentation compiles the main results of the 3 clinical studies done with infant formulas with addition of one HMO (2’-fucosyllactose – 2’FL) or 2 HMOs (2’FL and lacto-N-neotetraose – LNnT).

There is ongoing confusion between lactose intolerance (LI) and cow’s milk allergy (CMA) which may lead to misdiagnosis and inappropriate dietary management. The treatment of LI involves the reduction, but not complete elimination, of lactose-containing foods.

In this publication, Vandenplas et al. have reviewed the published evidence on HMOs, their mechanism of action and health benefits, especially when added to infant formula.

In this study, Newburg and colleagues examined the protection conferred by fucosylated oligosaccharides of human breast milk against diarrhoea in breastfed infants.

Immunological Effects of Human Milk Oligosaccharides In this publication, Triantis and colleagues reviewed the published literature on the role of human milk oligosaccharides or HMOs in promoting immune-related health benefits.

In this publication, Vandenplas et al. have reviewed the published evidence on HMOs, their mechanism of action and health benefits, especially when added to infant formula.

In this study, Morrow determined the association between the levels of 2-linked fucosylated HMOs in human breast milk and the occurrence of diarrhoea induced by Campylobacter and diarrhoea of all causes in breastfed infants.

The immune-enhancing effects of HMOs are structure specific. Oligosaccharides from other sources fail to mimic the structure-specific benefits of HMOs.

In this publication, Lars Bode has reviewed the role of HMOs in reducing the risk of necrotising enterocolitis.